Ed Camp 123 Reflections
2021年6月12日Download here: http://gg.gg/uyeuu
*Ed Camp 123 Reflections Rd
*Ed Camp 123 Reflections Workbook
*Ed Camp 123 Reflections Lake
ZDNet’s technology experts deliver the best tech news and analysis on the latest issues and events in IT for business technology professionals, IT managers and tech-savvy business people.
*Journal of Instructional Research, v7 p119-123 2018 Student persistence is a common concern for online educators. Previous research has shown that student persistence rates are effected by instructor presence, creating a sense of community in the classroom, and varying classroom activities for students (Croxton, 014).
*We know there was a British camp on the island. That was established by those guys the Laginas brought in and who, using metal detectors, found British coins and other debris that suggested a camp. So, there was a British presence on the island that predates the discovery of the Money Pit.First published Mon Jun 2, 2008; substantive revision Sun Oct 7, 2018
Philosophy of education is the branch of applied or practicalphilosophy concerned with the nature and aims of education and thephilosophical problems arising from educational theory and practice.Because that practice is ubiquitous in and across human societies, itssocial and individual manifestations so varied, and its influence soprofound, the subject is wide-ranging, involving issues in ethics andsocial/political philosophy, epistemology, metaphysics, philosophy ofmind and language, and other areas of philosophy. Because it looksboth inward to the parent discipline and outward to educationalpractice and the social, legal, and institutional contexts in which ittakes place, philosophy of education concerns itself with both sidesof the traditional theory/practice divide. Its subject matter includesboth basic philosophical issues (e.g., the nature of the knowledgeworth teaching, the character of educational equality and justice,etc.) and problems concerning specific educational policies andpractices (e.g., the desirability of standardized curricula andtesting, the social, economic, legal and moral dimensions of specificfunding arrangements, the justification of curriculum decisions,etc.). In all this the philosopher of education prizes conceptualclarity, argumentative rigor, the fair-minded consideration of theinterests of all involved in or affected by educational efforts andarrangements, and informed and well-reasoned valuation of educationalaims and interventions.
Philosophy of education has a long and distinguished history in theWestern philosophical tradition, from Socrates’ battles with thesophists to the present day. Many of the most distinguished figures inthat tradition incorporated educational concerns into their broaderphilosophical agendas (Curren 2000, 2018; Rorty 1998). While thathistory is not the focus here, it is worth noting that the ideals ofreasoned inquiry championed by Socrates and his descendants have longinformed the view that education should foster in all students, to theextent possible, the disposition to seek reasons and the ability toevaluate them cogently, and to be guided by their evaluations inmatters of belief, action and judgment. This view, that educationcentrally involves the fostering of reason or rationality, has withvarying articulations and qualifications been embraced by most ofthose historical figures; it continues to be defended by contemporaryphilosophers of education as well (Scheffler 1973 [1989]; Siegel 1988,1997, 2007, 2017). As with any philosophical thesis it iscontroversial; some dimensions of the controversy are exploredbelow.
This entry is a selective survey of important contemporary work in Anglophone philosophy of education; it does not treat in detail recent scholarship outside that context.
*3. Areas of Contemporary Activity1. Problems in Delineating the Field
The inward/outward looking nature of the field of philosophy ofeducation alluded to above makes the task of delineating the field, ofgiving an over-all picture of the intellectual landscape, somewhatcomplicated (for a detailed account of this topography, see Phillips1985, 2010). Suffice it to say that some philosophers, as well asfocusing inward on the abstract philosophical issues that concernthem, are drawn outwards to discuss or comment on issues that are morecommonly regarded as falling within the purview of professionaleducators, educational researchers, policy-makers and the like. (Anexample is Michael Scriven, who in his early career was a prominentphilosopher of science; later he became a central figure in thedevelopment of the field of evaluation of educational and socialprograms. See Scriven 1991a, 1991b.) At the same time, there areprofessionals in the educational or closely related spheres who aredrawn to discuss one or another of the philosophical issues that theyencounter in the course of their work. (An example here is thebehaviorist psychologist B.F. Skinner, the central figure in thedevelopment of operant conditioning and programmed learning, who inworks such as Walden Two (1948) and Beyond Freedom andDignity (1972) grappled—albeit controversially—withmajor philosophical issues that were related to his work.)
What makes the field even more amorphous is the existence of works oneducational topics, written by well-regarded philosophers who havemade major contributions to their discipline; these educationalreflections have little or no philosophical content, illustrating thetruth that philosophers do not always write philosophy. However,despite this, works in this genre have often been treated ascontributions to philosophy of education. (Examples include JohnLocke’s Some Thoughts Concerning Education [1693] andBertrand Russell’s rollicking pieces written primarily to raisefunds to support a progressive school he ran with his wife. (See Park 1965.)
Finally, as indicated earlier, the domain of education is vast, theissues it raises are almost overwhelmingly numerous and are of greatcomplexity, and the social significance of the field is second tonone. These features make the phenomena and problems of education ofgreat interest to a wide range of socially-concerned intellectuals,who bring with them their own favored conceptualframeworks—concepts, theories and ideologies, methods ofanalysis and argumentation, metaphysical and other assumptions, andthe like. It is not surprising that scholars who work in this broadgenre also find a home in the field of philosophy of education.
As a result of these various factors, the significant intellectual andsocial trends of the past few centuries, together with the significantdevelopments in philosophy, all have had an impact on the content ofarguments and methods of argumentation in philosophy ofeducation—Marxism, psycho-analysis, existentialism,phenomenology, positivism, post-modernism, pragmatism, neo-liberalism,the several waves of feminism, analytic philosophy in both itsordinary language and more formal guises, are merely the tip of theiceberg.2. Analytic Philosophy of Education and Its Influence
Conceptual analysis, careful assessment of arguments, the rooting outof ambiguity, the drawing of clarifying distinctions—all ofwhich are at least part of the philosophical toolkit—have beenrespected activities within philosophy from the dawn of the field. Nodoubt it somewhat over-simplifies the complex path of intellectualhistory to suggest that what happened in the twentiethcentury—early on, in the home discipline itself, and with a lagof a decade or more in philosophy of education—is thatphilosophical analysis came to be viewed by some scholars as being themajor philosophical activity (or set of activities), or even as beingthe only viable or reputable activity. In any case, as theygained prominence and for a time hegemonic influence during the riseof analytic philosophy early in the twentieth century analytictechniques came to dominate philosophy of education in the middlethird of that century (Curren, Robertson, & Hager 2003).
The pioneering work in the modern period entirely in an analytic modewas the short monograph by C.D. Hardie, Truth and Fallacy inEducational Theory (1941; reissued in 1962). In his Introduction,Hardie (who had studied with C.D. Broad and I.A. Richards) made itclear that he was putting all his eggs into theordinary-language-analysis basket:
The Cambridge analytical school, led by Moore, Broad and Wittgenstein,has attempted so to analyse propositions that it will always beapparent whether the disagreement between philosophers is oneconcerning matters of fact, or is one concerning the use of words, oris, as is frequently the case, a purely emotive one. It is time, Ithink, that a similar attitude became common in the field ofeducational theory. (Hardie 1962: xix)
About a decade after the end of the Second World War the floodgatesopened and a stream of work in the analytic mode appeared; thefollowing is merely a sample. D. J. O’Connor published AnIntroduction to Philosophy of Education (1957) in which, amongother things, he argued that the word “theory” as it isused in educational contexts is merely a courtesy title, foreducational theories are nothing like what bear this title in thenatural sciences. Israel Scheffler, who became the paramountphilosopher of education in North America, produced a number ofimportant works including The Language of Education (1960),which contained clarifying and influential analyses of definitions (hedistinguished reportive, stipulative, and programmatic types) and thelogic of slogans (often these are literally meaningless, and, heargued, should be seen as truncated arguments), Conditions ofKnowledge (1965), still the best introduction to theepistemological side of philosophy of education, and Reason andTeaching (1973 [1989]), which in a wide-ranging and influentialseries of essays makes the case for regarding the fostering ofrationality/critical thinking as a fundamental educational ideal (cf.Siegel 2016). B. O. Smith and R. H. Ennis edited the volumeLanguage and Concepts in Education (1961); and R.D.Archambault edited Philosophical Analysis and Education(1965), consisting of essays by a number of prominent British writers,most notably R. S. Peters (whose status in Britain paralleled that ofScheffler in the United States), Paul Hirst, and John Wilson. Topicscovered in the Archambault volume were typical of those that becamethe “bread and butter” of analytic philosophy of education(APE) throughout the English-speaking world—education as aprocess of initiation, liberal education, the nature of knowledge,types of teaching, and instruction versus indoctrination.
Among the most influential products of APE was the analysis developedby Hirst and Peters (1970) and Peters (1973) of the concept ofeducation itself. Using as a touchstone “normal Englishusage,” it was concluded that a person who has been educated(rather than instructed or indoctrinated) has been (i) changed for thebetter; (ii) this change has involved the acquisition of knowledge andintellectual skills and the development of understanding; and (iii)the person has come to care for, or be committed to, the domains ofknowledge and skill into which he or she has been initiated. Themethod used by Hirst and Peters comes across clearly in their handlingof the analogy with the concept of “reform”, one theysometimes drew upon for expository purposes. A criminal who has beenreformed has changed for the better, and has developed a commitment tothe new mode of life (if one or other of these conditions does nothold, a speaker of standard English would not say the criminal hasbeen reformed). Clearly the analogy with reform breaks down withrespect to the knowledge and understanding conditions. ElsewherePeters developed the fruitful notion of “education asinitiation”.
The concept of indoctrination was also of great interest to analyticphilosophers of education, for, it was argued, getting clear aboutprecisely what constitutes indoctrination also would serve to clarifythe border that demarcates it from acceptable educational processes.Thus, whether or not an instructional episode was a case ofindoctrination was determined by the content taught, the intention ofthe instructor, the methods of instruction used, the outcomes of theinstruction, or by some combination of these. Adherents of thedifferent analyses used the same general type of argument to maketheir case, namely, appeal to normal and aberrant usage.Unfortunately, ordinary language analysis did not lead to unanimity ofopinion about where this border was located, and rival analyses of theconcept were put forward (Snook 1972). The danger of restrictinganalysis to ordinary language (“normal English usage”) wasrecognized early on by Scheffler, whose preferred view of analysisemphasized
first, its greater sophistication as regards language, and theinterpenetration of language and inquiry, second, its attempt tofollow the modern example of the sciences in empirical spirit, inrigor, in attention to detail, in respect for alternatives, and inobjectivity of method, and third, its use of techniques of symboliclogic brought to full development only in the last fifty years…It is…this union of scientific spirit and logical methodapplied toward the clarification of basic ideas that characterizescurrent analytic philosophy [and that ought to characterize analyticphilosophy of education]. (Scheffler 1973 [1989: 9–10])
After a period of dominance, for a number of important reasons theinfluence of APE went into decline. First, there were growingcriticisms that the work of analytic philosophers of education hadbecome focused upon minutiae and in the main was bereft of practicalimport. (It is worth noting that a 1966 article in Time,reprinted in Lucas 1969, had put forward the same criticism ofmainstream philosophy.) Second, in the early 1970’s radicalstudents in Britain accused Peters’ brand of linguistic analysisof conservatism, and of tacitly giving support to “traditionalvalues”—they raised the issue of whose English usage wasbeing analyzed?
Third, criticisms of language analysis in mainstream philosophy hadbeen mounting for some time, and finally after a lag of many yearswere reaching the attention of philosophers of education; there evenhad been a surprising degree of interest on the part of the generalreading public in the United Kingdom as early as 1959, when GilbertRyle, editor of the journal Mind, refused to commission areview of Ernest Gellner’s Words and Things(1959)—a detailed and quite acerbic critique ofWittgenstein’s philosophy and its espousal of ordinary languageanalysis. (Ryle argued that Gellner’s book was too insulting, aview that drew Bertrand Russell into the fray on Gellner’sside—in the daily press, no less; Russell produced a list ofinsulting remarks drawn from the work of great philosophers of thepast. See Mehta 1963.)
Richard Peters had been given warning that all was not well with APEat a conference in Canada in 1966; after delivering a paper on“The aims of education: A conceptual inquiry” that wasbased on ordinary language analysis, a philosopher in the audience(William Dray) asked Peters “whose concepts do weanalyze?” Dray went on to suggest that different people, anddifferent groups within society, have different concepts of education.Five years before the radical students raised the same issue, Draypointed to the possibility that what Peters had presented under theguise of a “logical analysis” was nothing but the favoredusage of a certain class of persons—a class that Peters happenedto identify with (see Peters 1973, where to the editor’s creditthe interaction with Dray is reprinted).
Fourth, during the decade of the seventies when these variouscritiques of analytic philosophy were in the process of eroding itsluster, a spate of translations from the Continent stimulated somephilosophers of education in Britain and North America to set out innew directions, and to adopt a new style of writing and argumentation.Key works by Gadamer, Foucault and Derrida appeared in English, andthese were followed in 1984 by Lyotard’s The PostmodernCondition. The classic works of Heidegger and Husserl also found new admirers; andfeminist philosophers of education were finding theirvoices—Maxine Greene published a number of pieces in the 1970sand 1980s, including The Dialectic of Freedom (1988); theinfluential book by Nel Noddings, Caring: A Feminine Approach toEthics and Moral Education, appeared the same year as the work byLyotard, followed a year later by Jane Roland Martin’sReclaiming a Conversation. In more recent years all thesetrends have continued. APE was and is no longer the center ofinterest, although, as indicated below, it still retains itsvoice.3. Areas of Contemporary Activity
As was stressed at the outset, the field of education is huge andcontains within it a virtually inexhaustible number of issues that areof philosophical interest. To attempt comprehensive coverage of howphilosophers of education have been working within this thicket wouldbe a quixotic task for a large single volume and is out of thequestion for a solitary encyclopedia entry. Nevertheless, a valiantattempt to give an overview was made in A Companion to thePhilosophy of Education (Curren 2003), which contains more thansix-hundred pages divided into forty-five chapters each of whichsurveys a subfield of work. The following random selection of chaptertopics gives a sense of the enormous scope of the field: Sexeducation, special education, science education, aesthetic education,theories of teaching and learning, religious education, knowledge,truth and learning, cultivating reason, the measurement of learning,multicultural education, education and the politics of identity,education and standards of living, motivation and classroommanagement, feminism, critical theory, postmodernism, romanticism, thepurposes of universities, affirmative action in higher education, andprofessional education. The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy ofEducation (Siegel 2009) contains a similarly broad range ofarticles on (among other things) the epistemic and moral aims ofeducation, liberal education and its imminent demise, thinking andreasoning, fallibilism and fallibility, indoctrination, authenticity,the development of rationality, Socratic teaching, educating theimagination, caring and empathy in moral education, the limits ofmoral education, the cultivation of character, values education,curriculum and the value of knowledge, education and democracy, artand education, science education and religious toleration,constructivism and scientific methods, multicultural education,prejudice, authority and the interests of children, and on pragmatist,feminist, and postmodernist approaches to philosophy of education.
Given this enormous range, there is no non-arbitrary way to select asmall number of topics for further discussion, nor can the topics thatare chosen be pursued in great depth. The choice of those below hasbeen made with an eye to highlighting contemporary work tha
https://diarynote.indered.space
*Ed Camp 123 Reflections Rd
*Ed Camp 123 Reflections Workbook
*Ed Camp 123 Reflections Lake
ZDNet’s technology experts deliver the best tech news and analysis on the latest issues and events in IT for business technology professionals, IT managers and tech-savvy business people.
*Journal of Instructional Research, v7 p119-123 2018 Student persistence is a common concern for online educators. Previous research has shown that student persistence rates are effected by instructor presence, creating a sense of community in the classroom, and varying classroom activities for students (Croxton, 014).
*We know there was a British camp on the island. That was established by those guys the Laginas brought in and who, using metal detectors, found British coins and other debris that suggested a camp. So, there was a British presence on the island that predates the discovery of the Money Pit.First published Mon Jun 2, 2008; substantive revision Sun Oct 7, 2018
Philosophy of education is the branch of applied or practicalphilosophy concerned with the nature and aims of education and thephilosophical problems arising from educational theory and practice.Because that practice is ubiquitous in and across human societies, itssocial and individual manifestations so varied, and its influence soprofound, the subject is wide-ranging, involving issues in ethics andsocial/political philosophy, epistemology, metaphysics, philosophy ofmind and language, and other areas of philosophy. Because it looksboth inward to the parent discipline and outward to educationalpractice and the social, legal, and institutional contexts in which ittakes place, philosophy of education concerns itself with both sidesof the traditional theory/practice divide. Its subject matter includesboth basic philosophical issues (e.g., the nature of the knowledgeworth teaching, the character of educational equality and justice,etc.) and problems concerning specific educational policies andpractices (e.g., the desirability of standardized curricula andtesting, the social, economic, legal and moral dimensions of specificfunding arrangements, the justification of curriculum decisions,etc.). In all this the philosopher of education prizes conceptualclarity, argumentative rigor, the fair-minded consideration of theinterests of all involved in or affected by educational efforts andarrangements, and informed and well-reasoned valuation of educationalaims and interventions.
Philosophy of education has a long and distinguished history in theWestern philosophical tradition, from Socrates’ battles with thesophists to the present day. Many of the most distinguished figures inthat tradition incorporated educational concerns into their broaderphilosophical agendas (Curren 2000, 2018; Rorty 1998). While thathistory is not the focus here, it is worth noting that the ideals ofreasoned inquiry championed by Socrates and his descendants have longinformed the view that education should foster in all students, to theextent possible, the disposition to seek reasons and the ability toevaluate them cogently, and to be guided by their evaluations inmatters of belief, action and judgment. This view, that educationcentrally involves the fostering of reason or rationality, has withvarying articulations and qualifications been embraced by most ofthose historical figures; it continues to be defended by contemporaryphilosophers of education as well (Scheffler 1973 [1989]; Siegel 1988,1997, 2007, 2017). As with any philosophical thesis it iscontroversial; some dimensions of the controversy are exploredbelow.
This entry is a selective survey of important contemporary work in Anglophone philosophy of education; it does not treat in detail recent scholarship outside that context.
*3. Areas of Contemporary Activity1. Problems in Delineating the Field
The inward/outward looking nature of the field of philosophy ofeducation alluded to above makes the task of delineating the field, ofgiving an over-all picture of the intellectual landscape, somewhatcomplicated (for a detailed account of this topography, see Phillips1985, 2010). Suffice it to say that some philosophers, as well asfocusing inward on the abstract philosophical issues that concernthem, are drawn outwards to discuss or comment on issues that are morecommonly regarded as falling within the purview of professionaleducators, educational researchers, policy-makers and the like. (Anexample is Michael Scriven, who in his early career was a prominentphilosopher of science; later he became a central figure in thedevelopment of the field of evaluation of educational and socialprograms. See Scriven 1991a, 1991b.) At the same time, there areprofessionals in the educational or closely related spheres who aredrawn to discuss one or another of the philosophical issues that theyencounter in the course of their work. (An example here is thebehaviorist psychologist B.F. Skinner, the central figure in thedevelopment of operant conditioning and programmed learning, who inworks such as Walden Two (1948) and Beyond Freedom andDignity (1972) grappled—albeit controversially—withmajor philosophical issues that were related to his work.)
What makes the field even more amorphous is the existence of works oneducational topics, written by well-regarded philosophers who havemade major contributions to their discipline; these educationalreflections have little or no philosophical content, illustrating thetruth that philosophers do not always write philosophy. However,despite this, works in this genre have often been treated ascontributions to philosophy of education. (Examples include JohnLocke’s Some Thoughts Concerning Education [1693] andBertrand Russell’s rollicking pieces written primarily to raisefunds to support a progressive school he ran with his wife. (See Park 1965.)
Finally, as indicated earlier, the domain of education is vast, theissues it raises are almost overwhelmingly numerous and are of greatcomplexity, and the social significance of the field is second tonone. These features make the phenomena and problems of education ofgreat interest to a wide range of socially-concerned intellectuals,who bring with them their own favored conceptualframeworks—concepts, theories and ideologies, methods ofanalysis and argumentation, metaphysical and other assumptions, andthe like. It is not surprising that scholars who work in this broadgenre also find a home in the field of philosophy of education.
As a result of these various factors, the significant intellectual andsocial trends of the past few centuries, together with the significantdevelopments in philosophy, all have had an impact on the content ofarguments and methods of argumentation in philosophy ofeducation—Marxism, psycho-analysis, existentialism,phenomenology, positivism, post-modernism, pragmatism, neo-liberalism,the several waves of feminism, analytic philosophy in both itsordinary language and more formal guises, are merely the tip of theiceberg.2. Analytic Philosophy of Education and Its Influence
Conceptual analysis, careful assessment of arguments, the rooting outof ambiguity, the drawing of clarifying distinctions—all ofwhich are at least part of the philosophical toolkit—have beenrespected activities within philosophy from the dawn of the field. Nodoubt it somewhat over-simplifies the complex path of intellectualhistory to suggest that what happened in the twentiethcentury—early on, in the home discipline itself, and with a lagof a decade or more in philosophy of education—is thatphilosophical analysis came to be viewed by some scholars as being themajor philosophical activity (or set of activities), or even as beingthe only viable or reputable activity. In any case, as theygained prominence and for a time hegemonic influence during the riseof analytic philosophy early in the twentieth century analytictechniques came to dominate philosophy of education in the middlethird of that century (Curren, Robertson, & Hager 2003).
The pioneering work in the modern period entirely in an analytic modewas the short monograph by C.D. Hardie, Truth and Fallacy inEducational Theory (1941; reissued in 1962). In his Introduction,Hardie (who had studied with C.D. Broad and I.A. Richards) made itclear that he was putting all his eggs into theordinary-language-analysis basket:
The Cambridge analytical school, led by Moore, Broad and Wittgenstein,has attempted so to analyse propositions that it will always beapparent whether the disagreement between philosophers is oneconcerning matters of fact, or is one concerning the use of words, oris, as is frequently the case, a purely emotive one. It is time, Ithink, that a similar attitude became common in the field ofeducational theory. (Hardie 1962: xix)
About a decade after the end of the Second World War the floodgatesopened and a stream of work in the analytic mode appeared; thefollowing is merely a sample. D. J. O’Connor published AnIntroduction to Philosophy of Education (1957) in which, amongother things, he argued that the word “theory” as it isused in educational contexts is merely a courtesy title, foreducational theories are nothing like what bear this title in thenatural sciences. Israel Scheffler, who became the paramountphilosopher of education in North America, produced a number ofimportant works including The Language of Education (1960),which contained clarifying and influential analyses of definitions (hedistinguished reportive, stipulative, and programmatic types) and thelogic of slogans (often these are literally meaningless, and, heargued, should be seen as truncated arguments), Conditions ofKnowledge (1965), still the best introduction to theepistemological side of philosophy of education, and Reason andTeaching (1973 [1989]), which in a wide-ranging and influentialseries of essays makes the case for regarding the fostering ofrationality/critical thinking as a fundamental educational ideal (cf.Siegel 2016). B. O. Smith and R. H. Ennis edited the volumeLanguage and Concepts in Education (1961); and R.D.Archambault edited Philosophical Analysis and Education(1965), consisting of essays by a number of prominent British writers,most notably R. S. Peters (whose status in Britain paralleled that ofScheffler in the United States), Paul Hirst, and John Wilson. Topicscovered in the Archambault volume were typical of those that becamethe “bread and butter” of analytic philosophy of education(APE) throughout the English-speaking world—education as aprocess of initiation, liberal education, the nature of knowledge,types of teaching, and instruction versus indoctrination.
Among the most influential products of APE was the analysis developedby Hirst and Peters (1970) and Peters (1973) of the concept ofeducation itself. Using as a touchstone “normal Englishusage,” it was concluded that a person who has been educated(rather than instructed or indoctrinated) has been (i) changed for thebetter; (ii) this change has involved the acquisition of knowledge andintellectual skills and the development of understanding; and (iii)the person has come to care for, or be committed to, the domains ofknowledge and skill into which he or she has been initiated. Themethod used by Hirst and Peters comes across clearly in their handlingof the analogy with the concept of “reform”, one theysometimes drew upon for expository purposes. A criminal who has beenreformed has changed for the better, and has developed a commitment tothe new mode of life (if one or other of these conditions does nothold, a speaker of standard English would not say the criminal hasbeen reformed). Clearly the analogy with reform breaks down withrespect to the knowledge and understanding conditions. ElsewherePeters developed the fruitful notion of “education asinitiation”.
The concept of indoctrination was also of great interest to analyticphilosophers of education, for, it was argued, getting clear aboutprecisely what constitutes indoctrination also would serve to clarifythe border that demarcates it from acceptable educational processes.Thus, whether or not an instructional episode was a case ofindoctrination was determined by the content taught, the intention ofthe instructor, the methods of instruction used, the outcomes of theinstruction, or by some combination of these. Adherents of thedifferent analyses used the same general type of argument to maketheir case, namely, appeal to normal and aberrant usage.Unfortunately, ordinary language analysis did not lead to unanimity ofopinion about where this border was located, and rival analyses of theconcept were put forward (Snook 1972). The danger of restrictinganalysis to ordinary language (“normal English usage”) wasrecognized early on by Scheffler, whose preferred view of analysisemphasized
first, its greater sophistication as regards language, and theinterpenetration of language and inquiry, second, its attempt tofollow the modern example of the sciences in empirical spirit, inrigor, in attention to detail, in respect for alternatives, and inobjectivity of method, and third, its use of techniques of symboliclogic brought to full development only in the last fifty years…It is…this union of scientific spirit and logical methodapplied toward the clarification of basic ideas that characterizescurrent analytic philosophy [and that ought to characterize analyticphilosophy of education]. (Scheffler 1973 [1989: 9–10])
After a period of dominance, for a number of important reasons theinfluence of APE went into decline. First, there were growingcriticisms that the work of analytic philosophers of education hadbecome focused upon minutiae and in the main was bereft of practicalimport. (It is worth noting that a 1966 article in Time,reprinted in Lucas 1969, had put forward the same criticism ofmainstream philosophy.) Second, in the early 1970’s radicalstudents in Britain accused Peters’ brand of linguistic analysisof conservatism, and of tacitly giving support to “traditionalvalues”—they raised the issue of whose English usage wasbeing analyzed?
Third, criticisms of language analysis in mainstream philosophy hadbeen mounting for some time, and finally after a lag of many yearswere reaching the attention of philosophers of education; there evenhad been a surprising degree of interest on the part of the generalreading public in the United Kingdom as early as 1959, when GilbertRyle, editor of the journal Mind, refused to commission areview of Ernest Gellner’s Words and Things(1959)—a detailed and quite acerbic critique ofWittgenstein’s philosophy and its espousal of ordinary languageanalysis. (Ryle argued that Gellner’s book was too insulting, aview that drew Bertrand Russell into the fray on Gellner’sside—in the daily press, no less; Russell produced a list ofinsulting remarks drawn from the work of great philosophers of thepast. See Mehta 1963.)
Richard Peters had been given warning that all was not well with APEat a conference in Canada in 1966; after delivering a paper on“The aims of education: A conceptual inquiry” that wasbased on ordinary language analysis, a philosopher in the audience(William Dray) asked Peters “whose concepts do weanalyze?” Dray went on to suggest that different people, anddifferent groups within society, have different concepts of education.Five years before the radical students raised the same issue, Draypointed to the possibility that what Peters had presented under theguise of a “logical analysis” was nothing but the favoredusage of a certain class of persons—a class that Peters happenedto identify with (see Peters 1973, where to the editor’s creditthe interaction with Dray is reprinted).
Fourth, during the decade of the seventies when these variouscritiques of analytic philosophy were in the process of eroding itsluster, a spate of translations from the Continent stimulated somephilosophers of education in Britain and North America to set out innew directions, and to adopt a new style of writing and argumentation.Key works by Gadamer, Foucault and Derrida appeared in English, andthese were followed in 1984 by Lyotard’s The PostmodernCondition. The classic works of Heidegger and Husserl also found new admirers; andfeminist philosophers of education were finding theirvoices—Maxine Greene published a number of pieces in the 1970sand 1980s, including The Dialectic of Freedom (1988); theinfluential book by Nel Noddings, Caring: A Feminine Approach toEthics and Moral Education, appeared the same year as the work byLyotard, followed a year later by Jane Roland Martin’sReclaiming a Conversation. In more recent years all thesetrends have continued. APE was and is no longer the center ofinterest, although, as indicated below, it still retains itsvoice.3. Areas of Contemporary Activity
As was stressed at the outset, the field of education is huge andcontains within it a virtually inexhaustible number of issues that areof philosophical interest. To attempt comprehensive coverage of howphilosophers of education have been working within this thicket wouldbe a quixotic task for a large single volume and is out of thequestion for a solitary encyclopedia entry. Nevertheless, a valiantattempt to give an overview was made in A Companion to thePhilosophy of Education (Curren 2003), which contains more thansix-hundred pages divided into forty-five chapters each of whichsurveys a subfield of work. The following random selection of chaptertopics gives a sense of the enormous scope of the field: Sexeducation, special education, science education, aesthetic education,theories of teaching and learning, religious education, knowledge,truth and learning, cultivating reason, the measurement of learning,multicultural education, education and the politics of identity,education and standards of living, motivation and classroommanagement, feminism, critical theory, postmodernism, romanticism, thepurposes of universities, affirmative action in higher education, andprofessional education. The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy ofEducation (Siegel 2009) contains a similarly broad range ofarticles on (among other things) the epistemic and moral aims ofeducation, liberal education and its imminent demise, thinking andreasoning, fallibilism and fallibility, indoctrination, authenticity,the development of rationality, Socratic teaching, educating theimagination, caring and empathy in moral education, the limits ofmoral education, the cultivation of character, values education,curriculum and the value of knowledge, education and democracy, artand education, science education and religious toleration,constructivism and scientific methods, multicultural education,prejudice, authority and the interests of children, and on pragmatist,feminist, and postmodernist approaches to philosophy of education.
Given this enormous range, there is no non-arbitrary way to select asmall number of topics for further discussion, nor can the topics thatare chosen be pursued in great depth. The choice of those below hasbeen made with an eye to highlighting contemporary work tha
https://diarynote.indered.space
コメント